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Disciplines such as physiology and biochemistry about the functioning of organs,

cells, or molecules often deal with causal relationships. For example, a

chemical formula representing a chemical reaction such as H2 + O → H2O is

a causal statement. It says that “the joining of two hydrogen atoms and one

oxygen atom causes the emergence of one water molecule”. Causal statements may be deterministic or probabilistic. The latter

predominate in medicine.

There are two types of causal statements, non-interventional and interventional.

(i) Non-interventional causal statements report about causal relationships

that are independent of interventions by the observer. In such a case, the

researcher simply observes the processes which she studies. But he/she does not 

actively manipulate the events constituting them. For example, he/she examines

whether babies born to mothers who drink excessively during pregnancy, or

have diabetes mellitus, are at a high risk of developing any disorders. If the answer

is Yes, then by employing our probabilistic theory of etiology, the causal assertion can be made that “excessive use of alcohol, or

diabetes mellitus, during pregnancy is positively causally relevant to pathological

disorders X, Y, Z”. This causal statement is non-interventional because

the allegedly causal factors, i.e., “excessive drinking during pregnancy” and

“diabetes during pregnancy”, have not been produced or manipulated by the

researcher.

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